Welcome to Part 1 of my new weekly series: 25 Defining Days. Each week, I’ll be looking through the twenty-five defining days of each president’s tenure, starting with George Washington and ending with Joe Biden.
These are days, sandwiched between the moment they entered office and the moment they left, that defined their presidency. It will be mostly American domestic and foreign policy, but important personal days and international events will be included. Some presidents will be more defined by their domestic agenda, others by foreign policy. Whatever the case, these will be the days that history will remember them for.
The exceptions are as follows:
- As William Henry Harrison and James A. Garfield has such short presidencies, their tenure will be combined to make the days up.
- As Franklin D. Roosevelt served for so long, he gets fifty days.
- As Donald Trump is the incumbent, he will not be included as many of his defining days are surely yet to come.
Without further ado, we’re starting with Father of the Nation, General George Washington:
The First Inauguration – 30th April 1789
On a pleasant April day in 1789, George Washington stepped out onto the balcony of Federal Hall, New York City. Chancellor of New York Robert Livingston stood with him. With the Bible open, George Washington, hero of the American Revolution, spoke the oath that would make him President of the United States. After years of rule by British monarchs, America had finally elected a president of their own. This set a precedent, as the presidential oath has been administered seventy-three times since. At this point, however, it was George Washington’s show.
Washington signs the Tariff of 1789 – 6th July 1789
The first major piece of legislation passed under the Washington administration was the Tariff Act of 1789. Signed by Washington on the 6th July of that year, the act intended to favour American industries and trade. Pushed by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, it would later make up 95% of government revenue. It was initially used to pay off the significant war debts of the United States.
Alexander Hamilton is sworn in as Secretary of the Treasury – 11th September 1789
Alexander Hamilton had proven himself a strong ally of Washington, and was thus rewarded with a plum post. On the 11th September 1789, Hamilton was sworn in as Secretary of the Treasury. His five and a half years in power saw him shape American economic policy. Policies included the creation of the First Bank of the United States and assuming states’ debts. Whilst Hamilton would make an enemy of many American politicians and would meet a shocking end during a duel, he remains a famous Founding Father and gave us a hit musical.
First State of the Union – 8th January 1790
On the 8th January 1790, George Washington gave the first State of the Union Address. Speaking at the Federal Hall in New York City, the same place as he had his first inauguration, Washington set out his plans for what he wanted his government to be. Nearly all US presidents have had a State of the Union since, indeed, there have been one-hundred.
Thomas Jefferson is sworn in as Secretary of State – 22nd March 1790
Thomas Jefferson is one of the most famous and influential men in American history. After spending years pushing for help in France, Jefferson returned to America in November 1789. He learnt of his appointment there, and would be sworn in on the 22nd March 1790. Jefferson’s time as Secretary of State was a difficult one, as he was on the losing end of arguments regarding state debts, France and the national bank. He eventually became too aware of the split in the cabinet, and he left office on the 31st December 1793. Nevertheless, Washington’s choice of Jefferson could be seen as an early cause of the later creation of political parties.
Washington signs Residence Act of 1790 – 16th July 1790
New York and Philadelphia were clearly never meant to be permanent capitals, and the hunt to find one had been on for quite some time. In the so-called “Compromise of 1790, dramatised in Hamilton’s ‘The Room Where It Happens,’ Secretaries Hamilton, Jefferson and Congressman Madison met to discuss terms. Both sides reached a compromise which meant that the new capital would be south of the Potomac. This culminated in the Residence Act of 1790, signed by Washington on the 16th July of that year. It designated a particular site along the banks of the Potomac and set criteria for its creation. By signing this act, Washington would help bring forth the famous Washington D.C, named for him.
Washington signs The Bank Bill of 1791 – 25th February 1791
On this day, Washington signed The Bank Bill of 1791. This bill would establish the controversial First Bank of the United States, pushed by contemporaries such as Alexander Hamilton but loathed by others such as Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson. A number of regulations were added. This act would establish US financial policy for some time.
Washington signs The Tariff of 1791 – 3rd March 1791
This act created the first internal taxation system in the United States, as it imposed it upon domestic and imported spirits. It was controversial and deeply opposed by Federalists, and would be the cause of the later Whiskey Rebellion. The act is sometimes known as the Whiskey Act.
The Battle of Wabash – 4th November 1791
The fight between the government/settlers and Native Americans had not been stopped by Washington’s presidency. On the 4th November 1791, the United States Army met the Western Confederacy of the Native Americans as part of the Northwest Indian War in what is now Ohio. After several hours of fighting, the Americans were forced into a retreat. Nearly every US troop and camp follower was injured or killed, with 832 fatalities overall. The Natives got away with a comparatively lighter 21 dead and 40 injured. The American army was devastated by the loss, and a congressional investigation was launched. This was a turning point for both the military and Native-US relations.
The Bill of Rights is ratified – 15th December 1791
The Bill of Rights, aka the first ten constitutional amendments, was ratified on this day. Considered perhaps the most sacred and important of the amendments, it is commonly discussed in government and legal matters. Its importance led to a number of copies to be made and preserved, and it can be seen in the National Archives building in D.C.
Washington signs the Coinage/Mint Act of 1792 – 2nd April 1792
US monetary policy was defined by the Coinage/Mint Act of 1792, signed by Washington on that date. It established the US Mint in the yet-to-be-created capital and regulated the coinage of the nation, setting the ratio of silver to gold at 15:1. Whilst some elements of monetary policy and coinage have changed, it set the standard for the nation in its early years.
Cornerstone for the ‘President’s Mansion’ is laid – 13th October 1792
The cornerstone of what would become the President’s Mansion was laid on the 13th October 1792. It would not be fully built or moved into for several years, but laid the groundwork for what would become one of the most iconic residences in the world.
Reelection – 5th November 1792
Whilst elections in the late 18th century were wildly different to today, the aim was the same- to elect a president. The election of 1792 lasted three days and was chosen by presidential electors. On the 5th November, the result was clear: a reluctant George Washington had been reelected.
Louis XVI is executed – 21st January 1793
France had become mired in revolution just a month after Washington was inaugurated. After over a year in prison, the deposed French monarch faced death after a practically unanimous vote. On this date, Louis XVI placed his head on the guillotine block and waited with dignity until the blade hit his neck. The reaction split the US public. Whilst many were pro-Revolution, they were horrified by the monarch’s execution. Washington had corresponded with Louis and was apparently saddened by his death. It would massively change how the US would work with France, especially after it gave rise to a certain man named General Napoleon Bonaparte.
Second Inauguration – 4th March 1793
Washington’s second inauguration was on this date, with the 4th March being Inauguration Day until the 1930s. Held at Congress Hall in Philadelphia this time, the presidential oath was administered by Associate Justice William Cushing. Like his first inaugural address, it was under one hundred and fifty words long.
Proclamation of Neutrality – 22nd April 1793
Trouble was brewing in Europe, as Revolutionary France had declared war on Great Britain. The cabinet was, as ever, deeply divided. Francophile Thomas Jefferson wanted to support their close ally, and believed that whilst Washington had the right to be neutral, there was no need to declare it. Meanwhile, Alexander Hamilton believed that neutrality was essential. Eventually, Washington proclaimed neutrality in the conflict. Such a proclamation bred an isolationist policy.
Thomas Jefferson’s last day as Secretary of State – 31st December 1793
By late 1793, Thomas Jefferson had enough. Issues with neutrality, lack of support for France and a centralised government saw Jefferson alienated from Washington and Hamilton in particular. On the last day of 1793, Jefferson left office. He would remain a critic throughout the rest of the presidency and an opponent of Hamilton until the latter’s 1804 death.
The Act to Provide a Naval Armament is passed – 27th March 1794
The act, signed on this date, authorised the funding and building of six frigates. These frigates would eventually become the United States Navy, a powerful force in military affairs.
Jay Treaty is signed – 14th August 1794
Whilst Britain had begrudgingly agreed to independence, it did not mean that the two countries were friends. Tensions still remained and both sides sought to create peace, however short. On this date, the Jay Treaty was signed. Named for John Jay, the treaty ironed out several issues that included debt payment and boundaries. Many in the American public were outraged by the terms, and George Washington himself was no fan, but felt it was necessary to avert war. Whilst it did create peace in the short term, war with Britain would happen again.
Washington leads the forces – 4th October 1794
The Whiskey Rebellion kicked off after angry farmers and brewers rebelled against taxation against spirits. Washington had issued a proclamation in 1792 urging peace, but this did not stop things getting ugly. The violence surged in July 1794 and by October, there were concerns about how far this could go. On this date, Washington personally led forces to Carlisle, Pennsylvania to shut the rebellion down. This is the only instance so far of an incumbent president leading troops. Luckily for Washington, the rebellion was eventually put down, and he eventually pardoned the ringleaders.
Signing of the Treaty of San Lorenzo/Madrid/Pinckney’s – 27th October 1795
This treaty, known by three different names, was signed on the 27th October 1795. It allowed a number of benefits to the United States, including tax-free deposits in New Orleans, freedom of the seas, protection from Native American attacks, free navigation of the Mississippi River and trade deals. The treaty was wildly popular with the American public, unlike the Jay Treaty.
Treaty of Greenville is ratified – 22nd December 1795
The Treaty of Greenville was made between the United States and several Native tribes, and was ratified on the 22nd December 1795. It ended a state of war against the groups, creating a peace that would not last. Natives ceded large amounts of land that included most of modern-day Ohio and other states in exchange for a generous settlement. It also saw the exchange of prisoners and end of hostilities for a time.
Farewell Address – 19th September 1796
George Washington had been extremely reluctant to become president, and even more so to serve a second time. By the 19th September 1796, it was clear that he was not going to run again, despite the fact he would easily win. On this date, he released his famous Farewell Address. Written in conjunction with Alexander Hamilton, the lengthy address talked of Washington’s eagerness to retire among other things, with the most notable issue being his warning against party politics.
John Adams is officially elected – 7th December 1796
After Washington made it clear that he was not running again, the presidency was up for grabs. The election was incredibly close, but Vice President John Adams beat Thomas Jefferson, winning by one elector. It showed what Washington had hoped for- that the nation could move on without him. Unfortunately, it also led to the rise in party politics that Washington had warned against.
Inauguration of John Adams – 4th March 1797
The inauguration of John Adams on the 4th March 1797 marked a peaceful transfer of power in a republic never before seen. Proving that the American Experiment could work, George Washington watched as a new man was sworn in. Finally, Washington could rest after decades in public service. Many more peaceful transfers of power would follow.
That’s it for George Washington. Tune in next week for John Adams, in which we’ll see him deal with France being a pain, limiting free speech and that darn Thomas Jefferson.
