Welcome To Part Eleven! It’s time for Young Hickory, the man who finally brought Texas to the party. Let’s dive into the administration of James K. Polk:
His inauguration- 4th March 1845
James K. Polk was sworn in by Chief Justice Roger Taney on the East Portico of the Capitol on this day. It was the first inauguration to be covered via telegraph and the first to be illustrated in a newspaper. The weather was mild, and above zero. Polk’s inaugural address was mainly positive, and he talked about annexation.
Mexico breaks off diplomatic relations- 28th March 1845
Relations between the US and Mexico had been deteriorating for some time. Boundary disputes and an expanding United States had caused Mexico to fret, especially when California and Texas were on the line. Mexico finally had enough, and broke off diplomatic relations with the United States. War seemed inevitable.
Texas votes for annexation- 4th July 1845
The Texas convention voted almost unanimously for annexation on Independence Day 1845. Whilst it would be another few months before this was approved by Texas voters, it set the stage for the long-promised annexation.
First State of the Union Address- 2nd December 1845
Polk’s first State of the Union happened on this date. The main topic of the address was, as one might expect, Texas annexation. A large amount of the address was dedicated to this topic. Polk also discussed Manifest Destiny and the expansion of the United States with great exuberance and excitement. He also spoke of tariffs, the national debt and navigation.
Texas enters the Union- 29th December 1845
After years of toing-and-froing, Texas finally joined the United States as the 28th state on this date. Texas would become the second-largest US state by land, second only to Alaska, and remains one of the most influential in the nation. Whilst the United States was jubilant at this geopolitical victory, Mexico was quite the opposite. They refused to accept the annexation and continued to regard Texas as theirs. War once again looked inevitable.
Mexican-American War begins- 25th April 1846
After a stormy few months of diplomatic and military tension, the Mexican-American War finally kicked off on this date. The Thornton Affair, as it was known, came about from Mexicans crossing the Rio Grande. American Captain Seth B. Thornton and his forces were led into an ambush, with all of them killed or captured. This would be the impetus to the Mexican-American War when Polk heard the news.
Battle of Palo Alto- 8th May 1846
The Battle of Palo Alto, which happened on this day, was the first major engagement of the Mexican-American War. American forces led by General Zachary Taylor fought against a Mexican contingent led by General Mariano Arista in a disputed territory on the Rio Grande (now present-day Texas). Arista commanded around a thousand more men than Taylor, but the American general used light artillery to force them into equal standing by nightfall. With the Mexicans having lost more men, they melted away. America had achieved a victory, however small, and it was a great propaganda coup for them.
Battle of Resaca de la Palma- 9th May 1846
Whilst the Mexicans had left Palo Alto defeated, they soon came back the very next day. Mexican and American forces met again with their respective leaders just outside of where Palo Alto had taken place. The Americans were once again vastly outnumbered, but managed to fight hard until they forced a Mexican retreat. A number of Mexican soldiers drowned retreating across the Rio Grande. Zachary Taylor and his forces became overnight celebrities following Palo Alto and Resca de la Palma, something that no doubt contributed to him becoming president.
War is officially declared- 13th May 1846
Whilst these battles had already happened, news of them didn’t reach Polk until days after they had happened. He submitted war plans to Congress as soon as he’d heard of the Thornton Affair, and things only sped up following the above battles. On this day, war was officially declared by the United States after Congress agreed almost immediately. Former and future presidents John Quincy Adams, Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant would oppose the war.
Oregon Treaty is ratified- 18th June 1846
The Oregon Treaty was ratified on this day. The ownership of Oregon had been under contention by both the British and Americans for years, and were jointly occupied by both nations. The Oregon Treaty set the border at the 49th Parallel, though the Vancouver Islands remained part of Britain. America’s part of Oregon would become a territory and later a state. Britain’s part would become part of Canada. The British, however, were not happy with the treaty.
Signed the Walker Tariff- 30th July 1846
With British upset at the Oregon Treaty apparent, Polk signed the Walker Tariff on this day. Tariff reduction had already been discussed, and Polk was in favour due to his free market policies. Northern politicians opposed it, as well as members of Polk’s cabinet. The bill was so contentious that it eventually came to a tie-break in the Senate from Vice President George M. Dallas. It was hoped that the Walker Tariff would make the market more open to the British.
Battle of Buena Vista ends- 23rd February 1847
The Battle of Buena Vista, started on the 22nd February, ended on this date. Five-thousand men under General Zachary Taylor came up against fourteen-thousand Mexicans under Antonio López de Santa Anna. The main Mexican advance occurred on the 23rd. Once again, the Americans were able to successfully fight against a numerically superior Mexican army. The Mexicans left camp fires lit as a ruse upon their retreat, but Taylor chose not to pursue his Mexican counterpart. The Mexicans suffered 1,500 casualties to the Americans’ 500. It was a huge moral and military victory for the Americans.
End of Presidential Tour- 7th July 1847
Polk underwent a sweeping presidential tour of New England in June and July of 1847, and it ended on this date.
Battle of Molino del Rey- 8th September 1847
The Battle of Molino del Rey was another major engagement in the Mexican-American War. Major General Winfield Scott had been chosen to lead a new army after General Taylor’s stunning victories. An initial truce with General Santa Anna and the army headed to Mexico City. The two forces met on the edge of Mexico City, at a place suspected of being used as a cannon foundry. The American army was over double the size of the Mexican one, and included Captain Ulysses S. Grant. Scott’s forces won the day, but it was a bloody and hard-won victory that saw a large number of casualties that included officers. The Mexicans didn’t come off lightly either. It also turned out that the Molino del Ray wasn’t being used as a cannon foundry. Despite the light victory, it did help the Americans out a little later.
Battle of Chapultepec- 13th September 1847
The Battle of Chapultepec was perhaps the most significant one of the Mexican-American War. Located on the outskirts of Mexico City, Chapultepec Castle was of great strategic importance to entering the city. The Mexicans had a large force, but were spread thin, and Chapultepec was defended by General Nicolás Bravo, fewer than one thousand men including military cadets and seven cannons. Though Bravo and the cadets put up a brave defence, it was a bloody and ultimately losing battle. The Americans started their bombardement at 05:00 and their infantry attack at 08:00, it was all over by 13:30. The capturing of the castle lasted between an hour and an hour and a half. Both sides had their legends. The US Marines became legendary for their skill. The Mexicans had the Niños Héroes, six teenage military cadets who fought to the death against overwhelming odds.
Mexico City is captured- 14th September 1847
Just one day later, Mexico City was captured. Winfield Scott led a victorious US army through the gates, unopposed by Mexican forces. After over a year of fighting and the death of thousands, the Mexican-American War was essentially over. America would see patriotic fervour reach a fever pitch, and both Generals Scott and Taylor would enjoy great popularity.
Attack at Whitman Mission- 29th November 1847
Violence between white settlers and Native Americans had not necessarily abated over the years, and the attack at Whitman Mission on this date proved it. The Whitmans, led by Dr. Marcus Whitman, had initially been friendly towards the Cayuse people at their Washington settlement. This changed after the tragic accidental drowning of their only daughter, Alice Clarissa. Mrs. Narcissa Whitman became depressed, and Whitman became more involved with other white settlers. Attempts to get the Whitmans to leave failed. A measles outbreak soon affected the area, with Whitman acting as the physician to the afflicted. White children seemed to recover better than Native ones. Some of the Cayuse began to believe that Whitman had poisoned the children. A small band of Cayuse men attacked the mission, killing Dr and Mrs. Whitman, along with eleven others at the scene. Another man drowned whilst trying to escape. A handful of others also managed to escape, but the rest were held hostage for a month. Issues did not end with the attack, and violence between the Cayuse and white settlers would continue for some time.
Gold is found at Sutter’s Mill, California- 24th January 1848
The California Gold Rush brought thousands to the territory, and it all happened after a rather important discovery on this date. A mill worker named James Marshall discovered flakes of gold whilst doing a construction job. This discovery sent the country into a frenzy, unleashing thousands of ‘forty-niners’ into the territory and turning it into a powerful state.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signed- 2nd February 1848
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo formally ended the Mexican-American War. Signed in the titular city, the Mexicans ceded over half of its land in exchange for $15M ($607M today). Despite bumps in the road that included the Mexican Revolution in the early 20th century, the two countries have become steady friends and allies.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo goes into effect- 4th July 1848
The treaty came into effect on this day, Independence Day 1848. The cornerstone for the Washington Monument was also laid on this date.
Declaration of Sentiments is signed- 19th July 1848
On the 19th July 1848, an extraordinary event occurred in Seneca Falls, New York. Hundreds of women and their male allies arrived in the town to attend what would become the first women’s rights convention not only in US history, but in world history. One-hundred of them would sign the Declaration of Sentiments, a list of grievances against society and the government. In it, they decried lack of suffrage, college education and property rights among other things. Signatories included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Frederick Douglass. The Seneca Falls Convention continued the next day, and marked a huge step in women’s rights across the United States.
Signed act establishing the Territory of Oregon- 14th August 1848
Large parts of Oregon had been obtained from the aforementioned Oregon Treaty. On this day, Polk signed an act establishing Oregon as an official territory of the United States. It would become a state just over a decade earlier.
Fourth State of the Union Address- 5th December 1848
Polk delivered his final State of the Union Address on this date. Polk spoke of the Mexican-American War, the financial system and congressional powers among other things in his final address. The most notable part was the confirmation of gold being found in California. This comment triggered the gold rush and saw thousands head to the territory to seek their fortune.
Department of the Interior is created- 3rd March 1849
The Department of the Interior was created on this day, the last full day of Polk’s presidency. It has overseen resources, lands and people ever since.
Leaves office- 4th March 1849
Though the inauguration did not happen until the next day due to the 4th being a Sunday, this was James K. Polk’s final day in office. He’d vacated the White House the previous day but stayed until the 5th so that he could be present for Zachary Taylor’s inauguration. Polk and his wife Sarah left DC to enjoy a tour down south. Unfortunately, Polk soon fell ill whilst on a riverboat. He initially seemed to recover, but fell ill once again at their new home in Nashville. On the 15th June 1849, only 103 days after leaving office, James K. Polk died of cholera aged only fifty-three. It’s believed that his last words were addressed to his beloved wife- ‘I love you, Sarah, for all eternity, I love you.’ Historians considered Polk a highly underrated president who achieved all of his goals in his planned one term, and he is often ranked highly. Unfortunately, he is seen as one of the more forgotten presidents, though not on the level of Millard Fillmore or Chester A. Arthur.
That’s it for James K. Polk! Tune in next week for Zachary Taylor, in which we’ll see him deal with Cuba, California and the Washington D.C sewage system.
