Welcome to Part Sixteen! It’s time for the first Republican president, as well as the first to be assassinated. Let’s dive into the administration of Abraham Lincoln:
Inauguration- 4th March 1861
Abraham Lincoln was sworn in by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney on the East Portico of the Capitol on this day. His inaugural address was filled with entreaties to stop the unfolding war- ‘Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that– I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so.’ Whilst an inauguration was usually a joyful event, the fraught nature of the country meant that everyone was on edge. Snipers and sharpshooters lined the roofs, ready to fire into any chaos. Critics yelled out. Even before the inauguration, an assassination plot targeting Lincoln had been foiled. Still, there was some joy. It rained until mid-morning, but was sunny afterward. A carriage named ‘The Constitution’ with two women representing the ‘Goddess of Liberty’ and one for each of the then-states rode down the streets. The inaugural ball was renamed the ‘Union Ball,’ and was held at 10PM in a temporary ballroom.
Fort Sumter is shelled on- 12th April 1861
Fort Sumter, located in Charleston Harbour, was of great strategic value due to its location. South Carolina had seceded and the Confederates were attempting to negotiate for it. Buchanan had not allowed this, whilst Lincoln made attempts to reinforce the fort. President Davis did not want to be seen as the aggressor, but believed that the Confederacy was owed that fort. He then gave the order to bombard Fort Sumter. On this day, Confederate forces bombarded Fort Sumter, wearing down the Union forces until they surrendered the next day. The American Civil War, something that had been almost inevitable, was finally here.
Virginia secedes- 17th April 1861
Virginia, one of the most powerful and important states and home of many a US President, seceded from the Union on this day. Whilst it would not be ratified until the 23rd May, Virginia was now in the hands of the Confederacy. Secession had been discussed for some time, though Lincoln’s call for Virginia troops to recover Sumter and protect against the Confederacy hastened things along. Three more states- Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee- would follow in the next two months.
First Battle of Bull Run- 21st July 1861
The First Battle of Bull Run, the inaugural land battle of the US Civil War, happened on this day. At a site in northeastern Virginia, an inexperienced and outnumbered Union army led by General Irvin McDowell met the Confederate forces led by Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard. Civilians picnicked from the sidelines, but would soon be shocked by the bloody and brutal nature of the engagement. A Virginian general named Thomas J. Jackson led a brigade that repulsed Confederate forces. It was here that the famous nickname emerged, as Brigadier General Barnard E. Bee shouted ‘there is Jackson standing like a stone wall.’ (Bee was injured and would die the next day). Famed Confederate J.E.B Stuart led a cavalry charge that captured the Union artillery. McDowell’s line was broken by Bureuregard’s men. The Union forces thus retreated, and the Confederates could claim a strong victory. The Union lost 481 men and the Confederacy 387. An eighty-five year old widow named Judith Carter Henry became the first civilian casualty after a shell crashed through her bedroom window. Union overconfidence was shattered whilst the Confederates feared that worse was to come. The Second Battle of Bull Run saw the Confederates win against a massively numerically superior Union.
Willie Lincoln dies- 20th February 1862
Abraham Lincoln suffered a crushing personal loss when his son Willie Lincoln died on this day. Both he and brother Tad had been ill with typhoid. Whilst Tad would recover (though would die young at eighteen), Willie didn’t make it. Lincoln sank into another deep depression. Mary Lincoln was so grief-stricken that her husband threatened to send her to an asylum. Despite this, Lincoln had to continue to lead the country during its toughest time.
Battle of Hampton Roads ends- 9th March 1862
The Battle of Hampton Roads ended on this date. Also known as the Battle of the Ironclads, the clash saw the USS Monitor go up against the CSS Virginia in a body of water in Virginia. This was the first battle between the ironclads, a new version of warships, and was thus the focus of great attention. The Virginia had previously been a Union warship before it was raised by the Confederates and transformed. This had scared the Union, who had scrambled to create an ironclad equal to the threat. On the night of the 8th March, the Virginia sunk the USS Cumberland, with 121 souls lost. It then forced the USS Congress to run aground (on the Congress was the brother of the Virginia’s captain). The next day, the Virginia was attacking the USS Minnesota when the Monitor slipped in. Over the next four hours, the two ironclads duked it out on the river. Eventually, the battle ended in a stalemate. Whilst the Union lost many more men and weapons, the Confederacy did not necessarily achieve their aims. The CSS Virginia was purposefully destroyed two months later to prevent it from falling into Union hands, whilst the USS Monitor was lost in a storm on New Years’ Eve 1862, killing sixteen crew members (its wreck was discovered in 1973). The Battle of Hampton Roads saw the largest single loss of life in one day in a Naval battle until Pearl Harbour.
Battle of Shiloh ends- 7th April 1862
The Battle of Shiloh, also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, ended on this day. Fought in Tennessee, the battle saw Ulysses S. Grant’s Union forces go up against the Confederate one led by Albert Sidney Johnston, and later P. G. T. Bureagard. The two armies met early on the 6th April, with the Confederates taking the Union army by surprise and taking the upper hand for the rest of the day. That afternoon, however, Johnston was killed after being shot in the leg. Johnston was the highest-ranking officer to be killed during the war. Beauregard then took command. By nightfall, the Confederates believed that they could defeat the Union army the next day, especially as they’d inflicted significant casualties. Early the next morning, Grant surprised the Confederacy with his attack. Helped by two timberclads, the Union army managed to drive the Confederates back. After two failed counterattacks, Bureaguard conceded and the Confederates retreated. The Union won, but paid a heavy price- there were 13,047 casualties that included 1,754 killed. The Confederacy saw 10,699 casualties that included 1,728 killed. Shiloh was now the bloodiest battle of the Civil War thus far. Whilst Grant had helped win the battle, he was heavily criticised in the North for the numbers of men he lost. Meanwhile, the Confederates suffered a huge moral blow, and Shiloh is considered the turning point in the war.
Signs Homestead Act 1862- 20th May 1862
Lincoln signed the Homestead Act of 1862 on this day. It opened up acres and acres of land in the West for any adult that had ‘not taken up arms against the United States,’ which included both women and immigrants. The Act significantly supported westward expansion and saw millions of Americans take the homestead journey.
Battle of Antietam- 17th September 1862
The Battle of Antietam, in Maryland, occurred on this day. The Confederacy was hoping to capture DC at some point, and Antietam was fewer than seventy miles away. The Maryland Campaign was not in the Confederates’ favour, and thus General Robert E. Lee hoped that this battle would turn the tide. Lee led his army, whilst the other side was commanded by George B. McClellan. Union forces attacked at dawn. A contingent led by Stonewall Jackson initially repelled the Union forces, who suffered heavy casualties. A second major assault saw the Union forces abandon their position. A final assault was led by Major General Ambrose Burnside and saw them initially hit the Confederate’s right. Luckily for the Confederates, a surprise division led by Major General A. P. Hill drove back the Union side and ended the battle. The Battle of Antietam ended with 22,727 casualties. It remains the bloodiest day in American history. Whilst the Union side was pushed back, they did win the battle, or at least push it to a draw. The British and French government were dissuaded from recognising the Confederacy and Lincoln was emboldened to push the Emancipation Proclamation.
Battle of Fredericksburg ends- 15th December 1862
The Battle of Fredericksburg ended on this day. Spread over four days, the battle saw over 200,000 combatants take part, the largest of any Civil War engagement. Major General Burnside, who had replaced McClellan, was hoping to block Lee from Richmond. On the 11th December, the Confederate forces started to harass some Union engineers. After some skirmishes, the rest of Burnside’s men arrive the next day. On the 13th, the Union army enjoys initial success but a clash on the Confederate right sees heavy casualties on both sides but the battle at a stalemate. Burnside’s failed diversion against General James Longstreet saw many Union soldiers slaughtered. General Lee observed the horror- ‘It is well that war is so terrible. We should grow too fond of it.’ On the 14th, there was a lull in the fighting as both sides observed the dead. Unusually, the Northern Lights could be seen. On the 15th, Burnside led a retreat across the Rappahannock. The Union saw casualties of 12,653 whilst the Confederates saw a lighter 5,377. Two Union generals were killed outright, whilst two Confederate generals were mortally wounded. The Confederates celebrated their victory, whilst Lincoln came under fire in the North.
Emancipation Proclamation- 1st January 1863
On this day, the Emancipation Proclamation was issued by Abraham Lincoln. The extraordinary document saw Lincoln free every slave in the Confederate states, which could happen if they got into Union territory. They were also permitted to join the Union Army. Whilst it did not free every slave as some believe, it significantly propelled full abolitionism, as it freed the majority of enslaved people.
Signs National Banking Act of 1863- 25th February 1863
The National Banking Act of 1863 was signed by Lincoln on this date. Along with the later National Banking Act of 1864, it helped establish national banks at a federal level and create the United States National Banking System. Its foundations led to the system that remains in the United States today.
Signs The Habeas Corpus Suspension Act of 1863- 3rd March 1863
Lincoln signed the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act of 1863 on this day. It allowed the president to suspend habeas corpus, a legal act which permits a judge to examine a defendant’s case to ensure that it is lawful. The writ of habeas corpus would thus be suspended six months later in the Union in cases pertaining to Union soldiers, spies, traitors and POWs. It also permitted extended detainment without jury trials. Andrew Johnson partially overturned the act, but allowed it to be dismissed in the case of Mary Surratt. After the war, the act expired. It remains one of Lincoln’s most controversial acts.
Battle of Chancellorsville ends- 6th May 1863
The Battle of Chancellorsville ended on this date after a week. Set in northern Virginia around sixty miles from DC, Chancellorsville was another significant military engagement. Joseph Hooker had been named commander of the Army of the Potomac. He wanted to force Lee from his camp at Fredericksburg. On the 30th April, Hooker’s men arrived at an intersection and waited. The next day, Lee divided his army and headed to meet Hooker. The two sides met soon after. The Union side outnumbered the Confederate one by forty-thousand men and were better rested and resourced. Hooker ordered his men back at the end of the day. Fighting continued on the 2nd May, but the Confederates faced a shattering blow when Jackson was accidentally hit by his own side, taking him out of action. Action on the 3rd May was particularly heavy and bloody. The Union army was pushed back from the east on the 4th. On the 5th, the Union army made plans to continue fighting but Hooker initiated a retreat. On the 6th, they went back across the Rappahannock. The Union saw 17,287 casualties, including 1,606 dead. The Confederates saw 12,764 casualties, including 1,665 dead. Despite a great Confederate loss of life, which included Jackson succumbing to his wounds, the battle was decisively in their favour. Lee was celebrated for his ‘perfect battle.’ Hooker was allowed to keep his command, but resigned soon after.
Battle of Gettysburg ends- 3rd July 1863
The Battle of Gettysburg ended on this date after three days of fighting. One of the most well-known and significant battles, the action happened in southern Pennsylvania, not far from the Maryland border. The Union outnumbered the Confederates by over twenty-thousand men. On the 1st July, both sides unexpectedly met. The Unions held the Confederate line until reinforcements led by Major General John F. Reynolds arrived, but Reynolds was killed in action. Confederate reinforcements then arrive, forcing Union forces to fall back into Gettysburg in the height of summer. Fighting started again the next morning and was fierce, but the day ended in a stalemate. On the 3rd July, fighting commenced. The Confederates let off possibly the largest artillery bombardment of the war. Then came the most infamous part of the battle. Lee ordered over twelve-thousand Confederate soldiers in an assault to break through Union lines. Known as Pickett’s Charge, the assault saw only a small number of men reach the ridge. With casualties at around sixty percent, this was a disaster. Lee ordered the men to retreat into the agonising march from Gettysburg. The Confederates saw 28,063 casualties including nearly four thousand dead. The Union saw 23,049 casualties including just over three thousand dead. With a combined casualty list of over fifty-seven thousand, it was the bloodiest battle in the war and saw scores of generals die, as well as a civilian named Jennie Wade. It was a Union victory, though Lee escaping soured the mood. The Confederates suffered both a military and moral loss. Like Shiloh, it is considered a turning point of the war.
Surrender at Vicksburg- 4th July 1863
The Confederate forces surrendered at Vicksburg on this date after forty-seven days. The Union army led by Ulysses S. Grant faced up against a heavily outnumbered Confederate side headed up by John C. Pembelton. From the 18th May to 4th July, both armies fought what was essentially a war of attrition. The siege ended when Pembleton and his Confederates, realising how bad things were for them, met Grant and the Unionists between their lines on Independence Day. Grant famously asked for ‘unconditional surrender,’ having received this nickname following Fort Donelson in February 1862. The Confederates had a stunning casualty list of 32,263 compared to the Union’s much lighter 4,910, which was even more important when one considers how badly they were outnumbered. Following this and the result at Gettysburg, there was reason for the Union to celebrate, but Lee’s continued escape saw Lincoln despondent.
Gettysburg Address- 19th November 1863
On this day, Lincoln delivered perhaps his most famous address. He stood at Gettysburg where months earlier thousands of men had fallen. Beginning with ‘four score and seven years ago,’ Lincoln delivered the address in fewer than two minutes to a crowd of thousands. Only one photograph and five copies remain, which can be seen in the Library of Congress, White House and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum.
Ulysses S. Grant is promoted to Commander-in-General- 9th March 1864
Ulysses S. Grant was formally promoted to Commander-in-General and Commanding General of the US Army on this day, though Lincoln did not proclaim it until the 10th. Grant was helped by the success of the Vicksburg campaign and Chattanooga and the failure of other generals. His prominence would help him in winning the presidency four years later.
Capture of Atlanta- 2nd September 1864
After over three months of fighting, including the Battle of Atlanta on the 22nd July, the titular city fell to General William T. Sherman’s Union forces. They cut the last supply railroad at Jonesboro, less than twenty miles south of the city. Knowing that their time was up, General John Bell Hood had the Confederates blow up their ammunition trains so that it wouldn’t fall into Union hands. The Mayor of Atlanta, James Calhoun, surrendered with a note- ‘The fortune of war has placed Atlanta in your hands.’ Sherman followed this with his infamous ‘March to the Sea,’ a military act which saw destruction follow in its wake. Whilst it didn’t end the war, it certainly disrupted the Confederacy and assisted in Lincoln’s reelection.
Wins reelection- 8th November 1864
Abraham Lincoln won reelection on this day. Despite the raging Civil War, elections were still held. In an unusual move, he’d chosen southern Democrat Andrew Johnson as his vice president in order to promote unity. Indeed, he’d run on a National Unity ticket. He was up against the Democratic nominee General McClellan, a man who’d made no secret of his dislike of his Commander in Chief. With the Confederate breakaways not included, only twenty-five states were included. Lincoln won handily, helped by recent Union victories.
House passes the 13th Amendment – 31st January 1865
After a strong debate, the House of Representatives passed the 13th Amendment. Though it had not yet been ratified by the requisite number of states, it was a huge step in abolishing slavery.
Second inauguration- 4th March 1865
Abraham Lincoln was sworn in for the second time on this day on the East Portico, this time by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase. It had rained two days straight but the sun immediately broke out when the ceremony began. The inauguration was most notable for the fact that the incoming VP Andrew Johnson was rather drunk. Despite calls for his dismissal, Lincoln defended him. Lincoln’s second inaugural speech called for calm and peace, finishing with ‘With malice toward none with charity for all with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right let us strive on to finish the work we are in to bind up the nation’s wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan ~ to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations..’
Lee surrenders at Appomattox- 9th April 1865
After four years of bloody conflict and the deaths of hundreds of thousands, the American Civil War finally ended on this date when General Lee surrendered at Appomattox. General Grant permitted Lee to choose the location, and the two met at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. Terms were discussed before the formal surrender was signed at the nearby McLean House. Despite a few later skirmishes, this is considered the end of the American Civil War.
Shot at Ford’s Theatre- 14th April 1865
Abraham Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth at Ford’s Theatre in D.C. on this day. Lincoln was accompanying his wife Mary, Colonel Henry Rathbone and Rathbone’s fiancée Clara Harris to a production of Our American Cousin. Little did they know, there was a conspiracy to assassinate leading members of the government. Mary asked her husband ‘what will Miss Harris think of me hanging on to you so?’ Lincoln replied ‘she won’t think anything about it.’ Shortly after, Booth slipped into the box and shot Lincoln during a humorous scene. The bullet struck Lincoln in the head. Booth escaped after jumping off the balcony. Lincoln was taken across the street to the home of William Petersen as doctors attempted to save his life. It was agreed by all that Lincoln was mortally wounded.
Dies- 15th April 1865
Abraham Lincoln died on this day, aged fifty-six. He died with his wife Mary by his side. Mary had been initially forced out due to hysteria, but was allowed back just before he died. Interestingly, Lincoln had allegedly dreamed of his death two nights before and had signed the bill creating the Secret Service the day before his death. The public was shocked at the first assassination of a sitting president. Lincoln was widely mourned, though some quarters celebrated his death. Lincoln remains one of the most beloved American leaders, generally classified as one of the greatest presidents, or even the greatest.
That’s it for Abraham Lincoln! Tune in next week for Andrew Johnson, in which we’ll see him deal with impeachment, Reconstruction and vetoes.